背诵法与交际的结合在口语中的运用
[Abstract] Nowadays English plays an important role in China as well as in the world. Oral English especially counts for its own linguistic features. Luckily many teaching methodology and relevant theories provide strong basis for oral teaching and learning. There are several factors influencing English speaking, for example, most Chinese can only learn English without language atmosphere. So we need to solve the problems that come with it. This paper firstly suggests recitation as a speaking learning model. We have to choose materials carefully by some standards. But it is not enough for the goal of using English for communication. So the paper then suggests combining communicative approach with recitation. Only in this way can the function of language be fully performed and communication be achieved.
[Key Words] oral English; recitation; communicative approach
谈背诵法与交际法的结合在口语中的应用
【摘 要】当今社会在乃至世界都起着至关重要的作用。英语口语由于自身语言特点在英语显得尤其重要。幸运的是许多教学流派与相关理论给口语教学提供了强有力的支持。口语学习受到多种因素的影响，如多数中国人学习英语缺乏语言环境，我们必须克服由此带来的相关问题。本首先建议了背诵法作为一种口语学习模式，要根据几个标准选好背诵材料。但这与达到语言交际的目的还有差距。因此本论文之后又建议将交际法配合背诵法。老师须认真设计各种交际型活动以激发学生真实的交际能力。只有两者结合才能发挥语言的功能并达到交际的目的。最后还须注意一些细节操作问题如控制教学材料难度，持之以恒地练习，才能学有所成。
【关键词】 口语；背诵法；交际法
Contents
Abstract………………………………………………………………...…………... (I)
摘要…………………………………………………………….…….......................(II)
1. Introduction.…………………………………………………………..…………(1)
1.1 Need of era…………………………………………………………..…….…….(1)
1.2 Importance of English………………………………………………….………..(1)
1.3 Theoretical condition…………………………………………………..…….….(1)
2. Factors influencing English……………………………………………………..(1)
2.1 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis……………………….…..……………... (1)
2.2 Difficulties in speaking…………………………..………………..……………..(2)
3. Recitation…………………………………………………………………………(2)
3.1 The method of reading and reciting……………………………………………..(2)
3.2 Theoretical conditions of reading……………………………………..………...(2)
3.3 Choosing materials……………………………………………………………...(3)
3.4 Problems of oral teaching and learning………………………………………...(4)
4. Communicative approach………………………………………………………(5)
4.1 Criteria…………………………………………………………………………..(6)
4.2 Task-based approach……………………………………………………………(7)
5. Tips for attention ………………..………………………………………………(8)
5.1 Controlling the difficulty of materials…………………………………………...(8)
5.2 Practice making perfect…………………………………………………………(8)
6. Conclusion………………………..………………………………………………(8)
Bibliography……………………………………………….………………………. (9)
1. Introduction
1.1 Need of era
The basic function of language is communication. Under whatever circumstance, being capable of fluently and confidently expressing one's thoughts is the essential need of human beings. The lack of ability to express a language in a free way cannot be considered to have been in command of the language. English is no exception. There is no doubt, with its appearance and evolution, English plays a significant role in every field under the sun. Moreover, after China's open-door policy and comparatively recent entry into the WTO, English has become more important and urgent than ever, which in turn brings Chinese the opportunity and challenge as well. Though Chinese are given the platform to learn English, more exactly, to communicate in English, the problem is that, though China's middle schools have set up English courses in every level and attach great importance to it in the University Extrance Examinations to increase awareness, the defects in English teaching and learning cannot be neglected. Most Chinese middle school teachers lay emphasis on grammar for the sake of written exams, while on the other hand ignore the students' development of speaking ability, leaving so many people getting high scores in paper but unable to speak English out.
1.2 Importance of spoken English
Not only is the teaching and learning of spoken English important in today's society, but also it is useful to other facets in terms of linguistics. Speaking, together with ing, the other fundamental tool of communication, underlies other abilities development and the English study as a whole. By way of this, it helps enlarge vocabulary scope and understand language structures, quickens the reaction of listening, and strengthens instinctive feel of reading. The efficiency of teaching depends, to a great extent, on students' oral proficiency. Cultivating a certain oral fluency is primary. However, it is a great pity that speaking was neglected for a long time under China's existing educational system. Fortunately, with the popularization of communicative approach, speaking and listening receive more and more attention in education circles, and the study of teaching and learning of speaking climbs in large numbers.
1.3 Theoretical condition
Furthermore, a variety of English teaching schools and educational psychology lay the theoretical foundation for teaching strategies. Each one has both the advantages and shortcomings. Every school claims their own is the best. In the face of so many opinions, many teachers are in two minds not knowing what to do with the teaching reform. They still stick to the tradition according to their own light for fear of making a mess of teaching. Why shouldn't we have a comprehensive analysis of all those, and pick up the advantages. The following would be some suggestions of a model for English teaching and learning, as well as their basis.
2. Factors influencing English speaking
Before talking about the model, we need to know something about English learning and speaking teaching.
2.1 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen maintains that adult second language learners have at their disposal two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in a second language: acquisition and learning.[1]
Acquisition is the way we acquire our mother tongue when we were young. We learn to speak unconsciously by imitating those around us. Whereas, we are now studying English in the classroom, that's to say, we are learning instead of acquiring.
For Krashen, it is conscious attention to rules that distinguishes language acquisition from language learning.[2] For lack of language atmosphere, the learning of English, our second language can only be acquired by learning without regard to some exceptions. So the possibility of learning in native surroundings is ruled out. Another realistic problem is that middle school students have to handle several subjects during limited time. They do not have time to concentrate on English. Even though some of them focus on it, it is just on grammar and examination that has little connection with speaking. As a result, teachers should offer them as many chances as possible to improve their oral fluency.
2.2 Difficulties in speaking
The learning of speaking includes pronunciation, vocabulary, phrases, grammar and sentence patterns. It is related to language systems. If learners develop an ability to put these all together in a right way, they have mastered the linguistic competence. But this is never enough. Speaking is the most obvious form of communication between people. The objective of speaking is that students participate a great deal of oral communication, meanwhile through which foster linguistic competence, social linguistic ability and strategic capability, such as ability through speaking, ability to grasp language’s communicative function, thinking ability in the social intercourse and qualifications as a fluent reader and so forth.[3] This double characteristic places English speaking in the unique position and creates quite a few barriers for teaching. For example, teachers’ own level of proficiency should be guaranteed. There are lots of materials to cover. What they face is usually a large class, so getting most students to speak is not a piece of cake. They also have to design various activities and choose what to use and how or when to perform. Therefore, teachers should improve themselves in English speaking and teaching methodology. In addition, several factors influence speaking such as expressive motivation, size of vocabulary, communication strategy, atmosphere and interaction mode. So finding a way to improve students’ comprehensive ability is the key.
3. Recitation
3.1The method of reading and reciting
This method is quite popular today, but still, it is of great importance. Though many people know about this way of learning well, most of them turn a deaf ear. More probably they never think why it is advocated, not to mention to have a try. They consider the "rote learning" not clever and a waste of time. Another reason for their not trying is their lack of perseverance because it needs relentless practice. As it is, though demanding, it can be of big help.
3.2 Theoretical foundation of constant reading
Why should ask students to read several times first? It is common rule that reading aloud is the basis of remembering. What makes different is how many times are required by different persons. Reading helps develop an instinctive feel of the English.
Behaviorism believes learning is the cooperation between stimulus and response or reinforcement and transformation of behavioral habit. Thorndike put forward "law of practice" and "law of effect" to directly explain human's behavior. He thought repetition and its favorable results would unceasingly stimulate and reinforce behavior until the forming of stimulus----response result.[4]
Wittrock said the brain is not a passive consumer of information. The stored memories and information-processing strategies of our cognitive system interact with the sensory information received from the environment, selectively attend to this information, relate it to memory and actively construct meaning for it.[5] That is why when reading over and over again, readers can understand it a little more every time, provided a little thinking is invovled. It can be called "comprehensively reciting". According to Chomsky, language is an intricate rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system.[6] Cognitive theory suggests that people have potential linguistic competence to disintegrate complicated grammatical rules. While reading, human brains begin to think out the constitution and sentence patterns. Therefore, if the chosen sentences are of the same structure or grammar, it is easy to perceive the similarity thus to keep it in mind.
We know how the brain works in the process of receiving information, based on the assumptions of cognitive theory that the memory system is an organized processor where the processed information are stored in long-term memory.[7] Through this, the information is transferred into knowledge. Constructivism also raises that learning is a process in which learners actively compose the meanings of knowledge. It contains the composition of new information and restructure of previous experience as well.[8] p234 So when speakers use the knowledge to create new sentences, they already developed the ability of speaking. It can be called "creatively reciting". How does the creation happen? In the light of form-practice theory: transfer is the result of psychological factors (including attention, memory, mind and imagination, etc) being trained thus improved. When students read materials countless times, all those factors work together to practice your creative sentence making.
3.3 Choosing materials
Saying "read and recite" doesn't apply in all the articals you have met, but in some materials specifically designed for reciting. There are many examples of this kind. For instance, Li Yang's Crazy English advocates regarding sentence as a unit of speech. Liu Yi's "One Breath English" requires memorizing nine sentences in one minute. The following nine sentences of the same meaning are listed in his book.
(1) Great to see you.
(2) So good to see you.
(3) What's going on?
(4) What's up today?
(5) What are you doing?
(6) Anything exciting?
(7) You look great.
(8) You look high-spirited.
(9) You look like you are ready for anything.[9]
All the nine sentences perform the same function of greetings. People will admire you for using so authentic greetings and you can choose whatever you like to speak without worrying about the possibility of going into blank about what to say.
Hu Ming's Learning Through Reading uses a cluster of phrases to make up a story for the convenience of memorization and it is also more interesting. Let's see one paragraph of Hu Ming's story. Pay attention to the phrases beginning with the letter "f". (10)"When Jay's alarm went off, it was still dark. He had to feel his way around room to even find the light switch. As he moved about Jay groaned. He could feel in his bones that today wasn't going to be a good day. And he didn't feel up to going to university at all." [10] If students recite this paragraph, they not just know the meanings, but how they were used. Those are all reasonable with regard to human's memory. The process of memorizing is divided into three stages: recognition and remembering, retentiveness, reemergence.[11] Reciting methods are in line with these stages. When students read aloud, begin to understand and gradually get the feel, their brain exists in the stage of physical sense and receiving information. When students read something a lot of times to the point of recitation, it is in the process of maintaining the information. When they are able to speak in a new way, it is picking out and reconstructing the information.
There is no denying that repetitive drill plays an indispensable role in learning. It is especially true in speaking a language. But pure practice limits students in certain procedures. In the meantime, teacher's role is largely weakened. Never mind. The choice of reciting materials can make up for the weakness of negative Behavioral effects. For teaching and learning English, reciting materials should be carefully chosen. There are at least three standards for choosing speaking materials.
It can be classified on various grounds, such as
(i) On the grounds of content: business, travel, life, etc
(ii) On the grounds of function: greetings, apology, congratulations, etc
(iii) On the grounds of way of presentation: phrases, sentences, dialogues and passages, etc
No matter what kinds of books you are going to recite, classification is always one of the important criteria for option. It reminds you how you should use corresponding ways of expressions to suit the situations and what kind of attitude you should possess toward those materials.
3.3.2. Practicality
It should be graded in difficulty, so that it can suit students of every level as possible. And its choice should be commonly used in daily life. Make sure it serves as a bridge between you and native speakers rather than as a barrier. A teacher once said:" I carefully applied some phrases from a book in my communication with foreigner. Unfortunately, he did not catch me at all." That illustrates the importance of materials being pragmatic. "Cherry-Picked English" by Anderson on the bookshelf is a fine example of it. His rule is that those which are not the most commonly used were by all means excluded in the book.
3.3.3. Design
The goal of speaking is to know how to use the language in communication in appropriate ways. Different designs determine different effects. If a useful expression is only presented in one sentence, no further explanation, no background introduction, no any extensions, this couldn't be a proper learning material, even though the pick-ups are good. One characteristic is that one English word has a couple of meanings, and even one meaning can imply dramatically opposite things. So the chosen materials should show the usages of words in different forms and lay bare explanations of meanings, usages and cultural implications. Only in this way can students get a real sense of what they have read. The more it is equipped with some exercise to reinforce the just learned, the better it is for students' memorization and application. Students can benefit from those add-ons so as to produce similar sentences. Learners gain the general principles and fundamentals in the learning process. The better the learners master the knowledge, the more possible the knowledge can be transferred into something new in other situations. Again, take Cherry-Picked for an example, the book is divided into four parts in every unit. The first one is a fresh dialogue on the basis of topic. Within it are the actual usages of phrases for learners to feel the authentic language. The second one is the clear explanation of all phrases involved in the dialogue. The third one is selecting the useful sentence patterns and providing different kinds of sayings. The final one is some gap-fillings to test the result of your learning. This design familiarizes learners with phrases, sentences and usages. So it is easy to absorb.
3.4 Problems of oral teaching and learning
3.4.1 Problems of pure recitation without ability of communication
As students finished reciting, they are already possessed with the prospective of blurting English out without conscious translation in mind. But this is only the first step. Many of them read constantly until they can recite it as if it were their own immediate thought, so many of them thought it conclusive. Actually this is far from the end. Can we say for sure they know the communicative function very well even students can express their opinions about a certain topic? In other words, do they know what to say and how to say it on different occasions? It is mentioned that that not only should students be qualified as a fluent reader, but also they should have thinking ability in the social intercourse. Anyway, we live in a society where language is bound to be closely linked with social culture. Not by a long shot can speaking fluidly without purpose of exchanging information be called speaking a language. The solution to make up for the defects of recitation is the blending of recitation and communicative approach. This would be talked about in the following parts.
3.4.2 Problems for teachers to motivate students in simulated real life communication
If recitation is mostly controlled by students themselves, teachers would play a huge role in helping them understand real communication in this step. Several problems need to be solved in classroom speaking first of all. At the beginning, we are in the acquisition environment instead of the learning one. What teachers can do is to design activities to simulate real life speaking. Besides, students are worried about making mistakes, fearful of criticism of losing face, of simply shy of the attention that their speech attracts.[12] All these inhibit them to say in a foreign language. Another barrier is students’ low motivation to say beyond the guilt feeling that they should be speaking.[13] These problems are compounded by the fact that exposed in the same environment, students share the same mother tongue which is much easier to use. It can be quite difficult to get some classes, particularly the less disciplined or motivated ones to keep to the target language. So the teaching approach and activities should be carefully chosen and carried out. And communicative approach which would be talked next is a good way to let students make full use of what they have recited.
4. Communicative approach
Proficiency is what all English learners would like to abtain. Reciting is absolutely a way to achieve proficiency. It can be looked at as a goal and thus be defined in terms of objectives or standards. These can then serve as criteria by which to assess proficiency as an empirical fact, that is actual performance of given individual learners of groups of learners.[14] Once proficiency has been established, it can be related to the other variables in the language: context. When context and situation are involved in language speaking, it is time to get to the phase of real communication. "By situation we mean events in which we consider such things as setting, participants, purpose, topic, etc. Context refers to the body of information that the body of information that results in language being used."[15] The ultimate goal for learning a language is to know in what situation certain pieces of language are used. In other words, learners achieve communicative efficiency including learning of both language and situation at the same time.
With more and more profound awareness that the goal of using language should be communication rather than a subject which gives some knowledge on the surface. It is the uniqueness of learning and teaching a language as a communication tool that sets it apart from other courses taken in the classroom. Arising from the truth is communicative approach which becomes popular as time goes by. According to H.G.Widdowson, author of Teaching Language as Communication, Communicative approach is a teaching method which cultivates both learners' linguistic competence and develop their communicative capacity.[16] It is an approach as against to some conceptual misunderstandings in traditional teaching method. For example, it is traditionally believed that language learning is studying the usage of systematic component. Readers will master the practical ability to use the language on the basis of this. But without the support of knowing about proper use on different occasions, the sole command of the language does not suffice for communication. So students must know the vocabulary, grammar, sentence patterns and how to apply those appropriately in contexts.
4.1 Criteria
The application of communicative approach is to design various activities to activate students' learning cell. There are at least five criteria for evaluating communicative classroom activities.
4.1.1 Communicative purpose
Think of our daily communication in our mother tongue, more often or not we are exchanging information. We may ask others, "where do you buy the clothes? or "how much is it?" Then we may get the answer such as "I bought it from so and so store" or "twenty dollars." In a word, there must be some kinds of "information gap" that students seek to bridge when communicating.
4.1.2 Communication desire
The activity must create a desire to communicate among students. Either for practicing the language or really to socialize with others, they must feel a real need to communicate.
4.1.3 Focusing on content
When the goal is set to communication, teachers should not always focus on form. Anyway, what we exchange is the content. That is why teachers encourage students to omit unimportant words in casual ing and reading. If teachers interrupt students too many times, students will feel disheartened and have no desire to continue even if they are willing to say.
4.1.4 A variety of language
Though reciting often entails specific forms of language, it does not necessarily mean students could only use the language prepaired for them. These specific forms only offer students with reference. When they don't know which words to use, at least some options are available. So teachers should urge students to use a variety of language. The students should feel free enough to improvise, to play their expressions by ear, using whatever resources they choose.
4.1.5 No interruption
The activities should be designed for students to carry out. Teachers only act as controller, organizer, prompter, participant and resource-provider and so on. Teachers should not correct mistakes as soon as they are made, or evaluate how students should do the activity during the process. Even though in the final evaluation as the activity finishes, the assessment should be based on whether the students have achieved their communicative purpose, not on whether the language they used was correct.
4.2 Task-based approach
Task-based approach is the development of communicative approach. It sets up concrete tasks as learning motive and regards task-completion process as learning process.[17] Without assigned tasks, students may feel nothing to say. One of the common ways of speaking practice is topic-based activities. This is the application of what you have memorized in speaking of real use. Having finished the reciting program, students have a large reservoir of expressions at their disposal. So when required to comment on certain topics they can do it with more skills and facility. Further, when students have the ability to present their opinions solely, the monologue of topic presentation may evolve into group discussion which again, prompts students to put their store of treasure into use. Discussion means to engage in a verbal interchange and to express thoughts on particular subjects. It is a higher cognitive level of recitation in which teachers ask a series of low-level or factual questions aimed at checking how well they understand a particular idea or concept. Discussion is a situation in which teachers employ questions to stimulate discussions and students share ideas and opinions. Take picture sequence for an example. Students are divided into three groups, each group is given a picture, a table and the logical sequence of a story respectively. Students in each group discuss the content, define the sequence of story, and use pictures to place the order. Then students check whether the order is right by listening. At last, students take turns to retell the story according to the pictures. This example of discussion is teachers lead students to retell the story by looking at the sequence of pictures. By this means students get the chance to practice English and develop their logical thinking because every one of them has to take what others say into consideration. Then communicative purpose has been achieved.
Another form good for developing communicative capacity is dialogue. It is the commonest way of communication. Many designed dialogues provide models for conversation. By reciting those dialogues, students know how English conversation is produced. Teachers define a topic and a situation, two or more students say what they think within the topic range in the frame of given dialogue. Dialogue is not eloquent words on the part of one side, but an interaction among at least two people involved. You should not only know “How’s life been treating you?” but also can answer “Can’t complain.” Or when asked "how goes it?" you should know the answer "same old, same old." Sometimes you can not follow what you have heard, then information gap arising, the desire and need of communication aroused, you can say more to elicit others' further explanation in order to achieve mutual understanding.
(11) A: We’ve been working here a long time, right?
B: Yeah. So?
A: Well, we both know this business inside out, true?
B: I guess so. What are you driving at?
A: Ok, get this. I’m thinking of opening my own video store.
B: Come again?
A: I want to start my own business. And I want you to be my partner.
B: Me? I don’t know. I’ll tell you straight up ----- I don’t have the money.
A: That’s all right. We can take out a loan.
B: Let me think about it. [18]
At first B can’t understand A’s ambitions to open a video store. B uses “so, what are you driving at, come again, me” with the intonation expressing confusion and surprise to tell A he doesn’t quite catch the meaning and he has hesitation to accept the request. If you just recite “know something inside out” or “straight up” without knowing the purpose of the conversation, it is not a real communication. This kind of dialogue needs students more practice. When students are able to combine purpose and way of saying with recited expression, they have taken the language in the hand.
5. Tips for attention
5.1 Controlling the difficulty of materials
The number of speaking materials in the bookstore is too great to choose. Choosing proper materials is a little more difficult. For instance, two or three new words are included in every passage, or one to two unfamiliar idiomatic expressions are available in every dialogue. Otherwise students are easily demotivated. When having learned something new, it is more likely to continue this sense of accomplishment. One of the aspects of teaching that is most challenging is to generate goals and processes that are in reach of the students but not beyond their grasp. If teachers work within students’ ability, students will not learn more or develop more powerful strategies for learning. If working way far outside their present knowledge and capacity, students will struggle too much to learn optimally. Proper materials would play a role of generating environment that pulls students forward without overwhelming them.
5.2 Practice making perfect
Learning English is never a once-for-all project. It needs constant review and patience to do it step by step. Language learners need “continuous interval of practice or repetitive drill, though the whole process should be meaningful. “interval principle’ entailed in “Reinforcement theory” illustrates this point. Brown points out that if learners can remember or repeat what he had learned, language study would be further developed.”[19] So in the language learning process adopting suitable, meaningful repetitive drill and review is of great help for the language habit to come into being and to intensify bit by bit.
6. Conclusion
The above is an idea about one way to learn oral English. To some students, they always progress through recitation and their fluency and vocabulary stock both have reaches a certain degree. But the communicative part has little been put into real use. It is this part that needs their effort in the coming days. Of course there are many other methods worth trying and different persons have different taste for ways of learning. Anyway, recitation and communicative approach have become a most fashionable method. Those who still hesitate should join in the oral English wave.
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