多媒体在英语教学中的应用

[Abstract] With the development of society and economy, more and more talents capable of mastering English are badly needed in the world. Under the influence of traditional English teaching mode, most English learners can only read and write. They are usually called "deaf-mutes". Therefore, traditional English teaching mode is greatly challenged. With the continuous development of modern technology, multimedia is applied to teaching more and more widely. This is of special significance to English teaching. Because applying multimedia to English teaching could create more and more authentic language environment for the learners, which enables them to communicate in English in real-life situations. So does the Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT). At present, the CLT approach is the most popular language teaching method in the world. It emphasizes learning English during the process of communication and for communication. So, the authentic environment and communicative purposes make it possible to combine multimedia as an English teaching assistance and the CLT approach. But, because applying multimedia to teaching is a new thing at present, there is a misunderstanding that using multimedia is pointing and clicking the mouse. Then, how to use multimedia effectively? It is an effective way to combine multimedia with the CLT approach, though it needs a long time to combine them perfectly.
[Key words] traditional English teaching mode; multimedia teaching; the Communicative Language Teaching approach

[摘 要] 随着社会和的，世界对于人才的需求越来越大，而且所要求的水平也越来越高。 而在传统的外语教学模式下所培养出来的人大都只会读与写， 这样的英语被称作“哑巴英语”。因此，传统的英语教学模式受到挑战。随着技术的不断进步，多媒体被越来越广泛的应用于教学，而对于英语教学而言，多媒体具有尤为重要的意义。因为运用多媒体进行英语教学可以为学习者创建更多更真实的语言环境，让他们在真实的语境中用英语进行交际。这点符合交际法的理念。交际法是目前最盛行的一种语言教学方式，它强调在交际的过程中学语言和学语言是为了交际。因此，真实的语言环境和交际目的为二者的结合提供了基点。目前，由于运用多媒体进行教学是一种新兴的事物，所以在使用中存在着播放课件就是使用多媒体的误区。那么， 在英语教学中要如何有效得使用多媒体呢？虽然要将多媒体教学与交际法进行完美的结合还需要很长的时间，但是它是一种和有效的方法。
[关键字] 传统的英语教学模式;多媒体教学;交际法

1. Introduction
The twenty-first century is an age of information explosion, in which the speed, the amount and the extent of knowledge spreading are unparalleled in history. The relationship among countries and among people is becoming much closer. In other words, the world is much smaller than before. Therefore, it is nicknamed "the Earth Village". People's activities are not only performed in their own countries, but also in the world. So, the importance of English as an international language is obvious. The persons who can and speak as well as can read and write are badly needed in our society. But under the influence of traditional English teaching mode, the students can only read and write. They are called "deaf-mutes". So traditional English teaching mode is difficult to meet the needs of society. It is challenged by multimedia as a new English teaching assistance. Multimedia results from the development of society and modern technology and is a breakthrough of the computer assisted teaching technology.

2. The differences between traditional English teaching and the English teaching of using multimedia as assistance
2.1 What is multimedia?
Then, what is multimedia? According to the webpage Webopedia (www.webopedia.com), multimedia is "the use of computers to present text, graphics, video, animation, and sound in an integrated way."[1] It is based on computers and the Internet. When a student receives new information through multimedia, he/she can use his/her eyes, ears, mouth, hands ect., which would make the student get twice the result with half the effort at the same time. Treicher, an experimental psychologist, has ever done two famous psychological experiments: one is about the channels of human's getting information. That is, how human beings get information. By a large number of experiments, he has proved that of the information human beings received, 83% is by sight sense, 11% by hearing sense, and 94% by combining listening with seeing. Besides, 3.5% is by smell sense, 1.5% by touch sense, and 1% by taste sense. The other experiment is about maintaining information. In other words, how much Man will store the received information. The result is as follows: generally speaking, Man can remember 10% of what he/she just read, 20% of what he/she heard, 30% of what he/she saw, 50% of what he/she saw and heard. And if he/she was talking with others, he/she would remember 70% of what he himself/she herself just said. [2] Another investigation shows the same result. According to the result of it that is provided by France, a student can only maintain 15% of all the given information only by hearing sense and 25% only by sight sense. But if by combining hearing with seeing, the percentage will increase to 64%. [3] Thus it can be seen that multimedia is clearly superior to traditional English teaching and if it is used in English teaching, the efficiency of teaching and learning will be greatly raised.
2.2 The definition of traditional English teaching mode and its characters
Then, what is traditional English teaching mode? The traditional English teaching mode is called "cramming method of teaching". That is, teachers treat students like ducks, "force-feeding" them with boring grammar points and "important" phrases and sentences and paying no attention to the fact whether they understand them or not. So most of the students who are learning English feel that English is a trouble and a burden so that they dislike and even fear and hate it.
Traditional English teaching mode is of the following characters:
Firstly, teacher-centeredness. In traditional English teaching mode, the teacher is at the center of the class, regarded as the authority, the director of the learning process and the model for students to follow. The primary role of the teacher is thought to spoonfeed knowledge, to teach language skills and to answer questions for the learners, that is, "to transmit the target language". [4]
Secondly, product-oriented evaluation. The traditional evaluation system is based on product, to be more exact, on the students' marks. The vital, even the only criterion to judge the teacher and the students is what the students "achieve", not how the students "achieve" it. In other words, the criterion is product-oriented, not process-oriented.
Thirdly, the academic purposes. The traditional English teaching focuses on the grammatical explanation. "It values what people know about the language rather than what they comprehend or produce." [5] The teaching style is called "the academic teaching style", sometimes known as "the grammatical-translation method" and characterized by "teaching techniques of grammatical explanation and translation". [6]
Fourthly, focus only on two language skills: reading and writing. It is well known that "the teacher's teaching strengths and teaching style preference influences the character of learning climate or environment". [7] Under the influence of the traditional English teaching method--- the grammatical-translation method, "the students tend to prefer the information be presented visually rather than in spoken form". [8] They often find that it is easy to read and write but quite difficult to listen and speak.
Fifthly, limited learning resources. In traditional English teaching, textbooks and tapes are the only resources for students to learn English. But most of time, only textbooks are available for the sake of examinations.
2.3 The definition of multimedia as a teaching assistance and its characters
Under this mode, English cannot be used for communication. Multimedia, as a new technology, can provide "text, graphics, audio, video, etc."[9] and "combine reading, writing, speaking in a single activity ". [10] It is a remedy for the defects of traditional English teaching mode. Compared with traditional English teaching mode, multimedia, as a new teaching form, has the following obvious advantages.
First of all, learner-centeredness. The relationship between teachers and students is no longer subordinative. The class is planned and organized according to the students' need, that is, what to teach, when to teach and how to teach are made with reference to the learners. "Students have become active participants in learning and are encouraged to be explorers and creators of language rather than passive recipients of it (Brown, 1991)."[11] They can actively choose what to learn and learn them in their own way and at their own pace. The role of the teacher is also changed. He/She is not a director or a dominator but a facilitator who assists the learner to develop a natural capacity to communicate in English.
Secondly, comprehensive input. Multimedia, as an advanced educational technology, provides more audio-visual-text information. That is, people can get the information by different senses, such as by sight sense and hearing sense at the same time. The relative data is given above: when we receive the information by the two senses, we can remember 64% of it. Moreover, multimedia is good for long-term memory.
Thirdly, the communicative purposes. Multimedia provides the possibility of creating more authentic language situations, for "listening is combined with seeing, just like the real world."[12]
Fourthly, varieties of learning resources. Besides the traditional learning resources---textbooks and tapes, videotapes, CDs, etc. are available.
Fifthly, integration of four skills. "The variety of media make it natural to combine reading, writing, speaking and listening in a single activity."[13]
Finally, a major advantage of multimedia is that "it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies". [14]
2.4 The major differences between traditional English teaching mode and the English teaching of using multimedia as assistance
Take Unit 18 New Zealand in Senior English for China Student's Book 1B for example. This unit mainly introduces the nature and the culture of New Zealand. Under the mode of traditional English teaching, what teachers focus on is the language form (grammar) rather than the content, such as, making a list of the functions of the word "it", for example, "to use 'it' as subject". [15] Oppositely, using multimedia as a teaching tool, the content is the focus. By using multimedia, more background knowledge can be given. Then, a world map, a New Zealand map and even a short film about New Zealand can be provided, and students are asked to discuss in groups. Thus, they can have a general idea of the real situations in New Zealand. Moreover, their interest is aroused. Einstein ever said, "Interest is the best teacher". [16] So even the important grammar points seem to be not so boring and intolerable.
And the table below summarizes the major differences between traditional English teaching mode and multimedia as a new teaching tool (Experiential Model). It is adapted from Nunan, 2001.

Table: Teacher’s role and view of knowledge in traditional and experiential educational models compared [17]

The role of language teacher has changed from a dominator and a director in traditional language teaching to a facilitator in the teaching of using multimedia as assistance. In traditional language teaching, the teacher is at the center of the class and teaches language with academic purposes. In contrast, in the teaching of using multimedia as assistance, the teacher is a facilitator, "monitor, counselor, consultant, or orchestrator, and initiator". [18] By using multimedia he/she creates more authentic language environment to facilitate his/her students' learning.
"The teacher also works with very different kinds of teaching materials if he is to encourage learners to communicate in order to develop their own language learning --- rather than to learn language in order to communicate. In other words, the teacher will teach a 'living language' through the textbook instead of teaching the textbook. In traditional English teaching mode, the book often reigns alone, and the teacher often teaches the book, neglecting the language which lives around us. By using multimedia as an English teaching tool, the teacher will use of every source possible to facilitate learning."[19] He will use audiotapes, videotapes, CDs and so on to supplement the textbook.

3. Some misunderstandings in using multimedia
But in fact there are some misunderstandings in using multimedia. Some teachers think that using multimedia is pointing and clicking the mouse. They know that chalk and blackboard are out-of-date. They type the content of the textbooks into the computer. In the whole class, they still thoroughly explain the grammar and the words that would bring difficulties and translate the important and difficult sentences to students or ask the students themselves to translate them. Even some teachers read aloud the content on the screen from the beginning to the end to the students. They ignore that "teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to learn, setting the condition for learning (Douglas Brown, 1983)". [20] As for students, they are busier with copying the script than before, because with the help of multimedia, everything to be taught has been typed into computers before class, so a lot of time can be saved and therefore, more things can be crammed into them. Therefore, there is no time left for them to think or to communicate. English is still learned for examination not for communication. So, for them English is still a burden and a nuisance.

4. How to use multimedia in English teaching effectively?
4.1 What is language?
Then, how to use multimedia effectively in English teaching? Before answering this question, we should gain a clear idea of what language is. It seems to be very easy to answer this question. But, in fact, it has always been difficult for linguists and philologists to give a concise definition of language. "Although there has been an enormous amount of research in language in the past half century, no authoritative answer has been given to 'what is language?' Rather, people talk about views of language, seemingly allowing for or accepting different theories for the moment. However, language teachers clearly need to know generally what sort of entity they are dealing with and how the particular language they are teaching fits into that entity (Brown, 1994a)". [21]
Here are some sample definitions of "language" found in dictionaries and linguistics books:
"Language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture' to communicate or to interact (Finocchiaro, 1964:8).
Language is any set or system of linguistic symbols as used in a more or less uniform fashion by a number of people who are thus enabled to communicate intelligibly with one another (Random House Dictionary of the English Language 1996:806)
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Wardhaugh, 1972:3).
[Language is] a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings (Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language 1961:1270).
[Language is] a system of communication consisting of a set of small parts and a set of rules which these parts can be combined to produce messages that have meaning (Cambridge International Dictionary of English 1995:795)"[22]
As the above definitions show, language is a tool for human communication. English is a kind of language, so it is also a communicative tool. And the essence of English teaching is also communication. "Teaching is of communication. … Teaching is by communication. … Teaching is for communication. "[23] That is to say, teaching is an activity which should be performed by teachers and students together. It needs them to communicate with each other and to exchange their ideas and thoughts. Without whichever aspect of the two, teaching activity cannot be carried on smoothly, and even cannot be done. And it should integrate all kinds of skills which are required in real life communication: reading, writing, ing and speaking. So, evidently the purpose of language teaching is for communication. And English is taught as "a second language" in most non-English countries. A second language, "also known as foreign language, or non-native language, refers to a language which is not a country. It is often learned either for communication with foreigners who speak the language or for reading printed materials in the language". [24] So, People learn foreign languages with the primary purpose of communicating with foreigners. If foreign languages are taught or learned without or out of real situations, they would be useless and senseless.
We should keep in mind that the ultimate goal of our learning a foreign language is to communicate efficiently with foreigners. So we not only learn the language knowledge but also improve our language abilities. "There are rules of use without the rules of syntax are meaningless. (Hymes, 1972)"[25] This is the essence of Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT).
4.2 What is Communicative Language Teaching Approach?
What is Communicative Language Teaching Approach? Before giving the definition of the CLT approach, we should know what communicative competence is, because it is "the underlying theory of the CLT approach. (Hymes, 1972)"[26] Communicative competence is proposed by Hymes. According to him, "communicative competence includes not only the grammatical rules, but also the appropriateness to the context."[27] So it is no enough for students to know only the linguistic structures and grammar rules. They have to learn how to use the language properly. That is, they have to know whether it is appropriate to do so, and where, when and how it is appropriate to do it. In order to know this, besides the necessary grammars, they have to learn the sentences' functions in order to use them in different speech contexts. So, in 1981, Littlewood described the CLT approach as "one of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching"[28]. And "it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language."[29] To be more specific, the communicative approach can be summarized from the following four aspects:
First, "the goal of the CLT is to have one's students become communicatively competent."[30] It is obvious that only to remember the grammar points and useful expressions is not enough. Because, communicative competence requires being able to use the language appropriate in a given context. So it is very important for students to have the knowledge of the linguistic forms, meanings, and functions. "They have to know that many different forms can be used to perform a function and also that a single form can often serve a variety of functions."[31] For example, they should know how to make an invitation, and know that the two expressions: "Would you like to have a swim?" and "What/How about having a swim?"[32] serve the same function---invitation.
Second, "the role of the teacher is facilitator (including a manager, advisor, and co-communicator) of his students' learning."[33] According to the theory of the CLT approach, the role of the teacher has been changed. He/She is no longer the dominator of the class. That is, the teacher would not "force-feed" the students, and it depends on the students themselves to make full use of the classroom. What the teacher should do is to help the students develop their communicative abilities with the foreign language.
Third, "the most obvious characteristic of teaching/learning process is that almost everything that is done with a communicative intent. Activities (such as games, role-plays and problem-solving tasks) have three features: information gap, choice (a choice of what he will say and how he will say it), and feedback (evaluation). Another characteristic of the communicative approach is the use of authentic materials. Finally, the activities are often carried out by students in small groups."[34]
Fourth, "language functions are emphasized over forms. Typically a functional syllabus is used."[35] In the book Standards of English Lessons, eleven language functions are listed: 1) social communications; 2) attitudes; 3) emotions; 4) time; 5) space; 6) existence; 7) features; 8) measurement; 9) comparison; 10) logical relations; and 11) occupation. [36]
4.3 The effective way to use multimedia in English teaching
4.3.1 The possibility of combining CLT with multimedia used in English teaching
Evidently, multimedia as an English teaching tool and communicative language teaching approach have something in common. The major one is authentic language environment. Multimedia creates more authentic English environment and Communicative Language Teaching approach is based on communication. So it is possible to combine the two of them together in English teaching.
4.3.2 Two ideal samples of the combination of CLT and multimedia used in English teaching
Here are two examples which are ideal samples of the combination of Communicative Language Teaching approach and multimedia used in English teaching.
The first example was made by Huang, Shih-Jen and Liu, Hsiao-Fang in Fooin Institute of Technology in Taiwan, "conducted in the spring semester of 1998. The subjects were 45 second-year students in the five-year program of the Department of Foreign Languages at Fooyin Institute of Technology, Taiwan. The study took place in the setting of the students 'Oral Practice' course. The aim of the course in the second semester was to further expand students' English oral skills to a more composition-like style. The teacher and students met for one 2 hour session every week."[37] The stages are as follows:
"The subjects were paired in groups. Students were assigned a topic for every meeting in the class. First, students began to play a computer simulation software, Sim Town, and designed a simulated town on the computer. Next, they had to work on the assignment based on the assigned topic and the created city."[38] (Sim Town is "a computer simulation program created by Maxis/Flectronic Arts. It is designed for children at the age of 3 to 10". [39])
Huang and Liu even give the detailed description of the stages:
"To be more specific, each session consisted of five stages. First, the teacher oriented students to the basic operation of computers again. Then, the teacher needed to present the simulation software. Second, after students learned how to play Sim Town, they must build their own simulation town. Students were required to build the town in collaboration with the partner. They played the role of mayor of the simulated town. ... They were allowed to build the city in whichever way they desired. Third, after students finished building their city, the city itself then became the simulation world as students' learning materials. Students were required to practice an assigned topic. Fourth, students presented their simulated town to the class based on the assigned topic. The presentation was oral and in English. The student presentations could be given either individually or in groups. This presentation stage includes two parts: presentation and interaction. In addition to the presentation itself, the other class members might ask questions."[40]
The other ideal sample is "the program Dustin which is being developed by the Institute for Learning Sciences at Northwestern University (Schank & Cleary, 1995). The program is a simulation of a student arriving at a U.S. airport. The student must go through customs, find transportation to the city, and check in at a hotel. The language learner using the program assumes the role of the arriving student by interacting with simulated people who appear in video clips and responding to what they say by typing in responses. If the responses are correct, the student is sent off to do other things, such as meeting a roommate. If the responses are incorrect, the program takes remedial action by showing examples or breaking down the task into smaller parts. At any time the student can control the situation by asking what to do, asking what to say, asking to hear again what was just said, requesting for a translation, or controlling the level of difficulty of the lesson."[41]
4.3.3 Limitations
In the way of entertainment, the students achieve the goal of communication. It not only provides the opportunities for students to practice their English but also arouses and keeps their interest in learning English. But, at present, it is quite difficult to put it into use widely. There are some reasons as follows:
First, teachers and students are not very good at controlling computers at such level. Using multimedia in this way demands a good command of computer technology. Though, today, computers are quite prevalent in the world, it is not so easy to use multimedia as a teaching tool like this, at least, in our country. Furthermore, a large amount of money is required. The following data provides good evidence. Kazunori Nozawa in Toyohashi University of Technology wrote in his paper---Looking for an ideal CALLS(Computer Assisted Language Laboratory System) that "the normal cost for setting up an ideal 54 CALLS booths is more than 100 million yen in retail prices (approximately A $1.33 million) and the actual budget was far below it. Actually the budget given by the Ministry of Education was about the half."[42] It is hard for Japan, the second developed country, so it is even harder for such a developing country as China. There is another problem --- the quality of available programs. "While teachers themselves can conceivably develop their own multimedia programs using authoring software such as Hypercard (for the Macintosh) or Toolbok (for the PC), the fact is that most classroom teachers lack the training or the time to make even simple programs, let alone more complex and sophisticated ones such as Dustin. This has left the field to commercial developers, who often fail to base their programs on sound pedagogical principles. In addition, the cost involved in developing quality programs can put them out of the market of most English teaching programs. "[43] Besides, computer programs with that degree of intelligence do not exit, and are not expected to exist for quite a long time. "Today's computer programs are not yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive. A program like Dustin should ideally be able to understand a user's spoken input and evaluate it not just for correctness but also for appropriateness. It should be able to diagnose a student's problems with pronunciation, syntax, or usage and then intelligently decide among a rang of options (e.g., repeating, paraphrasing, slowing down, correcting, or directing the student to background explanations) "[44]

5. Conclusion
In conclusion, according to the present situation, there is a long way for us to cover to realize the ideal model of using multimedia as a teaching assistance. But, at least, we have a clear idea that only pointing and clicking the mouse is not equivalent to using multimedia. Teachers should create real situations for students to learn English as much as possible by using multimedia, and provide them more chances to practice their English and to improve their communicative abilities in English. So when teachers use multimedia as a teaching assistance, they should follow the Communicative Language Teaching approach, that is, combining Communicative Language Teaching approach with multimedia.

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