图式理论和大学英语阅读教学
来源:岁月联盟
时间:2010-08-19
1.1 Schema
The earliest formulation of schema was put forward by Kant. In modern psychology study, Bartlett is credited with first proposing the concept of schema in Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. “To him, the term schema refers to an active organization of past reaction, or of past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adopted organic response.”[1]
In 1970s, Rumelhart explained that the “schema is the building blocks of cognition.”[2] For example, the people don’t have the definition of computer before it is invented. But now, with the popularizing of computer, there is a definition of computer in people’s mind that is the computer schema. The schema helps the people to make up a picture of computers that have been seen and to know the different kinds of computers and the things that are similar to the computers later.
That is to say, “schema is a structure of abstract knowledge; it summarizes all kinds of known cases which has different details and gives the expression to the relation or all parts.”[3]
1.2 Classifications of Schema Theory
Researchers have identified several types of schemata.
“Content schema, which refers to a reader’s background or world knowledge, provides readers with a foundation, a basis for comparison. Formal schema, often known as textual schema, refers to the organizational forms and rhetorical structures of written texts. It can include knowledge of different text types and genres, and also include the understanding of different types of texts which use different text organization, language structures, vocabulary, grammar, level of formality/register. Schooling and culture play the largest role in providing one with a knowledge base of formal schema. While formal schema cover discourse level items, linguistic or language schema include the decoding features needed to recognize words and how they fit together in a sentence. First language readers, may through repeated examples, be able to generalize a pattern or guess the meaning of a word, which may not have initially been part of their linguistic schemata. The building of linguistic schema in a second language can proceed in the much the same way”. [4]
From the above discussion it is evident that schema play an important role in text comprehension, both in the first language and the second language context.
1.3 “Bottom-up” and “Up-down” Models
The schema theory says the reading materials don’t transmit the meaning to the reader, but to guide the reader to apply the known knowledge to rebuilding the information, which the meaning is based on. The reading comprehension is a process about schema and the reading materials interflow for each other and it needs to be activated by the reader. The top structure of the process represents the most common definition while the bottom structure represents the most special definition.
According to that, two basic models of handling information have developed. “One is the bottom-up’ that relies on the word information; the other is ‘top-down’ that applies the background knowledge to understanding the whole meaning of the article.” [5] They affect the process of reading at the same time and remedy each other. The application of “bottom-up” is caused by the input data, it’s called data-driven, and the model of “up-down” is called conceptually-driven.
“Rumelhart thought the application of two models happened at the same time.”[6] For example, Mary heard the ice cream man coming down the street; she remembered her birthday money and rushed into the house…
After reading the short story, many people must have the same comprehension: The short story happens in a hot day and Mary may be a little girl. She heard somebody selling ice cream, because she wanted to eat, she ran back home to fetch money in order to buy ice cream. In fact, the short article may not express this meaning, but the people activate the schema which is connected with the story in their mind and according to the schema to get the meaning of the article. If the next sentence is “… and locked the door”, the meaning is different. It shows that another schema should be activated to keep a harmony relationship in the comprehension of the story. The new schema may be: “Mary is afraid that her birthday money was stolen by the ice cream man.”
In the process of reading, the information is input continuously and exchanged with the known definition of the readers till the reader finishes the reading.
1.4 Schema Theory and Reading Comprehension
“Schema theory has it that any language may have its meaning just when it is organized and responded by its reader or er with his schema, as either oral or written language contains no meaning itself.”[7]
“Reading is a complex process of psycholinguistic guessing game.”[8] One reading theory says that the background of the reader in response to textual input is constructivism. Its proponents argue that knowledge, reader’s skill, cognitive development, culture and purpose are the five important aspects about a reader and his or her comprehension level. Based on that of cognitive schema, this theory purports when an individual is presented with information, a schema or knowledge structure is activated to interpret the information. These cultural assumptions on which readers may make are based on their schemata. When individuals were given a text to read and then asked to recall it, participants showed an increased distorted recall, making it conform to familiar story schemata.
The main standpoint of reading schema theory is when the people want to know new things they must put new things, the known definition and the experience together. The comprehension and explanation of the new things rely on the schemata that have been existed in the people’s mind. For example, when we see a cube, we can’t see its six sides at the same time, but we all know the cube has six sides; it is the schema that develops its effect. In fact, the schema theory is a theory model that the system researches the effect of the long-term memory in reading comprehension.
2. The Significance of Schema Theory Applied in the College English Reading Teaching
The process of applying the schema theory to the College English reading teaching is a process of two models and background knowledge, which affect each other. The schema theory has an important significance to the College English reading teaching.
2.1 Formal Schema and Reading Materials
Formal schema is the background knowledge, which the reader has had to distinguish the different styles, pages and structures. It is important for the people to arrange the reading materials.
As we know, the background knowledge of the article is very important to the comprehension. Therefore, to arrange the reading materials, we must to pay attention to the choice of the materials that have different styles, pages and structures. But we must take the schema theory as the guide in the process of arranging reading materials. According to the schema theory, the background knowledge is made up of many schema units. But the content and style of one article should be allocated in a schema unit. That is to say more topics are not required to be discussed in an article or it will make the students pay their attention to the language knowledge and the skill of solving a problem. It isn’t good for the students to make comprehension and enlarge their background knowledge.
2.2 Linguistic Schema and the Vocabulary Teaching
The schema emphasizes the effect of background knowledge in the macroscopic side, and the linguistic factors in the microcosmic side. Vocabulary is the basis of expressing and building all kinds of schemata. The meaning of the vocabulary in the schema theory is not the simple explanation, but the comprehensive definition of one word, context and background knowledge. For example,
The baby kicked the ball.
The punter kicked the ball.
The golfer kicked the ball.
The teacher requires the students to understand the sentence properly. At first, the teacher requires the students need a definition of “ball”, which is the shape, type, size and the meaning of all kinds of balls in different cultures, but not requires them to associate the “ball” with the volleyball, basketball, football. So the vocabulary teaching needs to choose the key words, which are good for building new schema.
In vocabulary teaching, it needs to pay attention to the special words that often cause misunderstanding, besides according to the context and the word-building to understand the new words.
There are two sentences:
(1) The importance of the new method can not be over-emphasized.
(2) The importance of the new method must not be over-emphasized.
The same phrase “over-emphasized” connected with the phrases “can not” and “must not” in the different sentences, it expresses the opposite meaning. Therefore, the level of language is very important. The teacher can use the linguistic schema and regular memory to teach vocabulary. According to the methods of similarity, contrast and association, the teacher can put the vocabulary into one net. As we know, the semantic memory is the essential memory of language; it is a psychological storehouse of vocabulary, which stores the common words. It is abstract and brief. But the common words can be deduced. If the students can grasp some semantic schemata and develop the semantic memory, put the deducible effect of schema and semantic together, the net of schema will be activated. It is using one word to act one net to improve the efficiency memory. In order to build linguistic schema and improve the level of reading, we must specify the capacity of language, or it would be more difficult to use the “bottom-up” model to evoke emotion of the known schema.
2.3 Content Schema and Reading
The schema has its cultural specific; it doesn’t belong to cultural background category of special readers. Some researches indicated: if people lack some content schemata or the capacity of allocating schemata, though they have specified capacity of language, they still have difficulty in building hypothesis and reading. Rumelhart posed three possibilities to the readers who can’t understand one article rightly. Firstly, the readers don’t have the suitable schema. In this case, the readers can’t understand the meaning of the article. Secondly, maybe the readers have some suitable schemata, but the author doesn’t offer some suitable clues for the readers to develop the effect of the schema. Therefore, the readers can’t understand the article, either. Thirdly, the readers can translate the article, but can’t understand the author’s real meaning. In this case, the readers know the words, but misunderstand the author’s meaning. The schema theory says, every article itself doesn’t have any meaning. It only points the direction to the readers and guides them how to apply their known knowledge to catch and builds the meaning of the article. Because the reading comprehension concerns both themselves and readers, the effective comprehension is a capacity to connect the reading materials to personal knowledge. Carrel thought the capacity of language is a part of the whole background knowledge and he divided the background knowledge into three types:
(1) The known knowledge to the content
(2) The known knowledge that the specified materials concerned.
(3) The vocabulary knowledge to the reading materials.
Generally speaking, all the background knowledge will develop the effect in reading comprehension. To know the subject, background and related specialized knowledge of the article can help the reader to understand the reading. On the contrary, the unilateral and wrong background knowledge will disturb the reading comprehension to the article. For example,
In the first year or so of wed business, most of the action has revolved around efforts to tap the consumer market…some companies are limiting the risk by conducting online transactions only with established business partners who are given access to the private intranet of the company. Another major shift in the model for Internet concerns the technology available for marketing.
“Web business” in the article is a new definition; it’s developing with the Internet. If the students have knowledge about the computer, especially about the Internet, they will understand the article probably. Though they can’t translate the “web business” correctly, “Intranet” and “Internet” in the article will activate their content schemata and make them finish the article without a hitch. In the other words, if the students aren’t familiar to the Internet, they will have difficulty in activating the background knowledge in their mind, and it will lead to the failure of reading comprehension.
3. The Application of Schema Theory to the College English Reading Teaching
3.1 The Application of Schema Theory at the Pre-reading Stage
Pre-reading is a direct link of reading teaching. Schema theory emphasizes the importance of accumulating knowledge and experience, but it’s more important for the students to predict the whole article by known knowledge. Therefore, the teacher has two things to do at the pre-reading stage.
One is to supply the students the background knowledge and help them to build the new content schemata. Because the students are short of English background knowledge, maybe they will have no content schemata to start in their reading. Now, the teacher must help the students to build the new content schemata in order to comprehend rightly. For example, there is one sentence “Being a teacher is being present at the creation, when the clay begins to breathe” (taken from College English Intensive Reading, Book III Unit 3, Why I Teach). The students may have difficulty in understanding; therefore, the teacher can divide the students into several groups and ask them to collect the related materials to the story about the God created the man. In the process of collecting, the students may get some information about the story. Then the teacher can tell the story about the God creates the man from Bible “Man was created by God out of clay, when God breathed the breath of life into the clay, it became alive and the creation of man was completed’. [9] Here the author compares the job of teacher to the work of God. It implies that while the parents give the child the body, it is the teacher who helps the student to become a real man or woman. After explaining, the students can not only understand the sentence, but also know the story about the God creates the man which is the new content schema they have built.
The other thing for the teacher is to activate the suitable content schemata which the students have had. At the pre-reading stage, the teacher should use the effective way to help the students to activate the content schemata that they have had and make them to associate the related composition with the content schemata, in order to have a good comprehension. For example, there is an article in College English Intensive Reading Book I Unit 1, How to Improve Your Study Habits. This topic is familiar for the students. They must have many opinions. The importance for the teacher is how to activate the suitable content schemata that the students have had. Therefore, the teacher can ask the students to discuss in groups and require every group to choose one student as their leader to tell their opinions after discussion. During discussing, the students will start their content schemata which they have had for this question. At last, the teacher can put their opinions on the blackboard:
Preview the lesson.
Taking notes while reading.
Reading the new words and expression in the morning.
Reviewing the whole lesson.
Listening to the tape in the evening.
Writing English diary…
After starting the content schemata that the students’ have had, they will be interested in reading and finish the reading much better.
3.2 The Application of Schema Theory at the While-Reading Stage
While-reading is the stage of schema concretized. At this stage, the main role is the students, it’s important for the students to comprehend the whole article all-round and rightly. So the teacher not only needs to teach the knowledge of language and form, but also needs to analyze and grasp the whole article. Therefore, to enrich the students’ schema is very important.
Some articles don’t have the complex syntactic construction and many new words, but the students still can’t understand the content or catch the main idea. They can grasp the details well, but make mistakes on main idea of the article, the meaning of sentences and the effect. It shows the students’ reading level is still on the level of understanding the appearance of the sentences, not the whole article. Only from the content, the words and sentences can develop their value. The reading materials concern all kinds of styles, such as, news, poem, novels and reports. Each style has its feature and different requirements for the readers. According to the schema theory, reading comprehension is not only influenced by the language and content, but also by the form, that’s formal schema. In reading, it’s helpful for the students to get the style of articles firstly. That’s based on the fact that the students have grasped all kinds of styles of articles and have had rich formal schemata. Therefore, it’s necessary for the teacher to enrich the students’ formal schemata. If the article is expository, the teacher must guide the students to activate the formal schemata to understand the object, the order and the methods; if the article is an argument, the teacher must remind the students to pay attention to the essential factors and the methods. For example, Bush authorizes calling up of coast guard reserve.
Washington (Reuters)-President Bush (news-web sites) on Thursday authorized Transportation Secretary Normal Mineta (news-web sites) to call up Coast Guard reservists to protect the U.S coast against terrorist attacks. Bush signed an executive order giving Mineta the authority to “manage personal requirements in a manner consistence” with a Sept 14 order that allowed Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld to use military reservists for the war on terrorism, White House officials said the order allows Mineta to call up Coast Guard reservists for coastal patrol duties…
The example is about President Bush authorized to call up Coast Guard reservists to protect the U.S coast against terrorist attacks. It’s easy for the students to judge that the reading material is a piece of news, but how much do they know the style. At the while-reading stage, the teacher can explain the style of news. News is a style to report the latest and valuable fact quickly and rightly; it has a special structure that is according to the influence to arrange the materials; therefore, the most important and latest part is often put at the beginning. If the readers know this kind of structures; they will understand the news quickly. But for the reader who doesn’t form the schema, he or she will need a long time to read the whole news like reading a narration. With the help of the teacher, the students can grasp all kinds of the styles gradually and their formal schemata will be much richer.
Maybe in the process of reading, the students often meet the situation that there aren’t any obstacle of linguistic and syntactic construction in one article, but after reading the whole article, the students have no ideas about it. The shortage of one content schema, they can’t offer information to match the reading materials, it cause the reading difficult. Facing the situation, the teacher needs to enlarge the students’ ken and input the background knowledge, so as to enrich the students’ content schemata. The more content schemata the students have, the easier comprehension they will do. Therefore, in reading teaching, the teacher must introduce some related background knowledge which base on the textbook to the students. For example, when the students have the lesson Lessons from Jefferson (taken from College English Intensive Reading, Book II Unit 3), the main role in this article is the President Jefferson. As we know there are many famous Presidents in the history of the USA. Therefore, the teacher can ask some students to tell stories about these famous Presidents that they know. Maybe some students are interested in studying the history of the USA and they would have rich knowledge about the Presidents, so they will like to share the knowledge with their classmates. The students tell the stories to the students that would make the students become active. After the interaction among the students, the teacher can supplement some stories about the Presidents, such as, Washington, Lincoln. In this way, the teacher helps the students to enrich their content schemata about the President of the USA and they won’t feel strange any more when they have the similar reading materials later. Accumulating over a long period; the content schema will be more and richer in the students’ mind, which the students can shift the related content schema to finish the reading successful.
3.3 The Application of Schema Theory at the Post-Reading Stage
Post-reading is a synthetically stage of consolidating schema. As we know, the time spends on the while-reading stage is quite limited. So the importance of post-reading can’t be ignored. At the post-reading stage, the teacher can hold kinds of activities by connecting the reading materials with the students’ experience, knowledge, interests and opinions. Maybe the teacher can set up some English “extra-curriculum (ECA)” [10] groups. The purpose of setting up these ECA groups is not only to foster students’ interests in learning English and develop their foreign language abilities and skills in different ways, but also to make them consolidate the knowledge of schemata they have had. The students are grouped must be “the creams” among their peers and extremely interested in English. The English ECA groups might be the oral English groups, which might engage in English games, such as, word guessing. Vocabulary is the basis of expressing and building all kinds of schema. Without the linguistic schema, the words, phrase can’t be activated; the content of article can’t be comprehended. Linguistics is the weak link of the foreign language learning. However, it’s impossible and unnecessary to grasp all the English vocabulary. Therefore, it’s necessary and important for the teacher to make the students to grasp the skill of guessing new words. And according to the schema theory the meaning of the vocabulary is not the simple explanation, but the comprehensive definition of one word, context and background knowledge. Therefore, the teacher can give the students some sentences and ask them to guess the word.
The first example, she seemed rather piqued when she knew she hadn’t been invited. In this sentence, “piqued” is a new word, but we can know from the experience and “when she know she hadn’t been invited” that somebody hadn’t been invited; he or she would be unhappy and angry. Therefore, we can deduce the meaning of “pique” is similar with “angry”.
The second example, surprisingly, the old lady is quite friendly and hospitable.” In this sentence, “friendly” and “hospitable” is parataxis. Therefore, “hospitable” should have the similar meaning to “friendly”.
The third example, nowadays people can make artificial trees and flowers in place of real ones. According to the arrangement of “artificial trees and flowers” and “real ones” in the article, we can deduce they would be the equal or contrastive relation. And “in place of” can make us they’re the contrastive relation. Therefore, “artificial” is to say “not real” “not natural” or “made by man”.
After guessing, the teacher can make a summary help the students to grasp the skill of guessing words. There are two ways to guess new words: from the clues of the content and the word-building. One is according to the definition, experience, general knowledge, retelling content, the related information, synonym, antonym and examples to guess new words. The other is according to the parts of compound words, root of derivative and affix t analysis the meaning of the new words.
The ECA groups might be the English wall-paper groups, which are in charge of gathering and discussing the English reading materials that cover mainly what students have learned in class. As we know, the social system, family composition, living ways and religious belief in the western country are different from those in China, and the differences will be reflected in language. Some of the Chinese students use their mother language to learn English and its culture. It will cause the misunderstanding and fault. Therefore, culture contrasting is a good way to help the students to get rid of obstacles and improve their reading capacity. For example, the teacher can guide the groups to make two English wall-papers. One is about Christmas; the other is about Spring Festival. In the process of making, the teacher can make some introductions properly, because Spring Festival is familiar for the students, the teacher can introduce the suitable background knowledge of Christmas in order to help them build or enrich content schema of Christmas. Then the teacher can ask the students to contrast two papers and summarize the similarities and differences about the styles, languages and so on. In the process, the students can go through the psychological process again and consolidate the schemata
4. Conclusion
The learner is the most important factor in learning language, and the best teaching is not based on the static knowledge but focused on the flexible use of the language. Therefore, the education of the second language not only makes the students grasp some language skills, but also helps the students to improve a capacity of learning. The application of schema theory is to train and develop the students’ effective reading skill, then to improve the students’ capacity of reading comprehension. The teacher should not only understand the related schema and the features of articles, but also understand the students’ psychology and encourage them to use the related background knowledge abundantly in order to make their hearts linked to the author’s heart. The students get the success after improving their capacity of reading comprehension. It will activate the students’ enthusiasm and get the final goal of English reading teaching.
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