英语教学法中语法翻译法与交际教学法的对比研究
1. Introduction
1.1 A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching in the West.
The history of Foreign Language Teaching has been summed up as follows:
600 years ago, the most important foreign language taught and learned in Western Europe was Latin.
Between the 17th and the early 19th centuries, ”modern” language such as English, French and German began to be taught in many schools and universities, the main teaching method adopted was Grammar Translation Method which was the method of teaching Latin. The aim was to teach students to understand (read and translate) the written language.
In the second half of the 19th century Linguists and language teachers began to cooperate to research a methodology for foreign language teaching that would be based on a scientific study of language and a study of how people learned. In Britain in the Reform Movement, linguists emphasized the study of phonetics and in the 1880s designed the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). That meant that, for the first time, the sounds of all languages could be systematically compared.
In France and Germany during the same period, The Direct Method, was developed. By the early 20th century the Direct Method had been officially adopted in French and German schools.
When the USA entered the Second World War it suddenly became clear that oral skills in foreign languages were necessary. The authorities turned to the Structural Linguists to seek for a scientific description of language and to the Behaviorist Psychologists for a scientific description of learning. The result of their cooperation became known as the Audio-lingual Method.
In the 1950s and 1960s, the Oral and Situational Methods paralleling the Audio-lingual Method, developed in Britain as a result of decades of work by British linguists.
In the 1970s and 1980s, developed from these methods, came the Communicative Approach of language teaching. This approach recognizes that learners need to know the grammatical rules of the language, but stresses that the purpose of learning such rules is to be able to do things, to perform functions.
Most recently, the greater emphasis on learners as individuals who have different needs, different personalities and different learning styles has led to the small-scale introduction of a variety of other methods such as the Natural Approach, The Silent Way, Total Physical Response and Community Language Learning. And these latter methods have never spread very widely. [1]
1.2 Teaching Methods: The Basic Concepts.
In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at the level of theory and principles, and a set of derived procedures for teaching a language, is central. In an attempt to clarify this difference, a scheme was proposed by the American applied linguist Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique. He defined that: Approach is a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning and teaching. Method is an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. Techniques are the specific activities manifested in the classroom that are consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well. [2] (P15)
After 20 years ago, Richards and Rodgers defined the teaching method as a system consisting of Approach, Design and Procedure. A method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is practically realized in procedure. Design consist of seven factors: language theory; teaching objects; teaching syllabus; the type of learning and teaching activities; the role of learner, the role of teacher and the role of materials. [3] (P16)
Richards and Rodgers defined “method” is an umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice. They believe that “The first level, approach, defines those assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and the nature of language learning the operate as axiomatic constructs or reference points and provide a theoretical foundation for what language teachers ultimately do with learners in classrooms. The second level in the system, design, specifies the relationship of theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials and activities in instructional settings. The third level, procedure, comprises the classroom techniques and practices that are consequences of particular approaches and designs.”[4](P17)
Therefore, we can conclude that if teachers can decide the correct approach, it is likely to organize Design and Procedure well and to help as many learners as possible to learn foreign languages as efficiently as possible.
2. Comparison of Two Methods
2.1 The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)
As we have known, the grammar analysis and translation as basic procedures appeared in foreign language learning in the 16th century. It developed into a popular method of teaching modern languages in the late 18th century and early 19th century. The Grammar Translation Method dominated foreign language teaching in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today. The principal characteristics of the GTM are as follows:
a) The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign-language study. Grammar Translation is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.
b) Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or ing.
c) Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization. In a typical Grammar-Translation text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated, a list of vocabulary items are presented with their translation equivalents, and translation exercises are prescribed.
d) The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method.
e) Accuracy is emphasized.
f) Grammar is taught deductively—that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercises.
g) The student’s native language the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the foreign language and the student’s native language.[2] (P3-4)
2.1.1 Approach – View of language and language learning
Different views on language lead to different views on language teaching and learning.
GTM views language as systems of rules for the construction of correct sentences, writing is considered to be the superior form of a language. [5] (P188)
The view of language learning emphasizes the importance of memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary. If learnt it well, the English language knowledge will be available quickly and automatically for further translation tasks.
Neither the view of language nor the view of learning is very fully developed. The GTM view of language and learning seems to ignore:
a) Only learning the written language proficiently may not meet every learner’s needs.
b) Language is a system of communication. It’s a tool of communication.
2.1.2 Design and procedure.
(i) Objectives, syllabus and activities
We know that GTM emphasizes the grammar rules and vocabulary. The objective of it is to learn the L2 well enough to be able to read and translate texts in the L2 quickly and accurately. The syllabus is based on a set of written texts constructed to introduce grammar and vocabulary in a systematic way. The main teaching procedure of GTM is like that: learners reading the text; the teacher analyze the grammatical structure in the text and translate the meaning of the vocabulary items word by word; At last teacher ask learners to practiced structure and vocabulary and then complete the written exercises that follow the text.
For example: When a teacher teaches a lesson “The last lesson”, he will design the teaching activities in the following procedures:
In order to make students understand the text well, he will first make a brief introduction to the author and the text and students will listen to the teacher and take notes. Secondly, he will read and translate this text sentence by sentence, analyze the grammatical structure in the text, and translate the meaning of the vocabulary items word by word. After describing the grammar and translating the text, he will ask students to read text directly and do some practices of reading comprehension to make student understand this text more clearly. At last, he will ask the students to complete the written exercises that follow the text. [6] (P65-67)
These objectives, syllabus and activities seem to ignore that:
a) This method makes learners become passive and obedient, and it may lose their initiative of learning. [7]
b) Reading a text word by word is not how people normally read.
c) Vocabulary and grammatical structures may have different meaning in different contexts.
d) Success in mechanical practice of language structures can not sure that they can be produced it in real-life contexts quickly and correctly. [7]
e) It puts too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speaking. In language communication, all the four skill are needed. [8] (P50)
(ii) The role of teachers, learners and materials.
In GTM method, the teacher’s role is to explain grammar rules and the meaning of words in the learners’ native language, organize practice (for example, the recitation of rules and translation), and correct learners’ mistakes. [5] (P188 )Teachers are the source of all input to learners in the EFL (English as the foreign language) context. They must ensure that they can answer any grammar or vocabulary questions that the learners might ask.
Learners are the teachers’ passive followers. The learners’ role is to pay careful attention to the teacher’s explanations and corrections, memorize rules and vocabulary lists, and carefully do the practice tasks the teacher sets. [5] (P189)
Textbook is the main line of GTM materials, there are grammatical explanations, vocabulary lists and practice exercises in it and the format of each chapter is usually identical.
The GTM view of the role of teachers, learners and materials seems to ignore that:
a) Overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependence on the first language. Students should learn to understand the target language and to express themselves in the target language without referring to their mother tongue. [8] (P50)
b) If teacher is in the centre of the classroom teaching and learners are their passive followers, the learners’ learning consciousness will get lost. [9]
c) Grammar rules and vocabulary items in contexts different from those in the texts may carry different meanings.
d) The texts are mostly taken from literary works. The language learned often doesn’t meet the practical needs of the learners. [8](p50)
2.1.3 Conclusion.
The Grammar Translation Method makes few demands on teacher, and it’s easy for teacher to control and use it. In GTM, teacher is in the central position, and the teaching method and procedure are all easy. Students’ mother tongue is used throughout the teaching process. The only thing teacher does is to follow the prescribed order. It’s simple and easy. However, if English learning aims only to help the learners to read English for a specific purpose (for example, to be able to read articles on Chemistry, Economics or Geography), then this method will meet learners’ need, but if the aim of the L2 learning is to enable learners to do more than read the language, then GTM is unlikely to be sufficient. They can not exercise their initiative in learning and only to accept the knowledge passively. GTM emphasizes the grammar rules and vocabulary, ignores learners’ communicative abilities and rely on the mother language excessively. These disadvantages will not lead to a good effect in language learning. [10] (P26)
2.3 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
CLT approach grew out of new theories of language and language learning that developed in the 1960s and 1970s in Britain, the USA, and elsewhere. It is probably the approach most used by trained language teachers today. But it is implemented in very different ways by different teachers working in different contexts. It is an approach with wide variations, not a well-defined method. By its very nature it is eclectic. [5](P193)
2.3.1. Approach – View of language and learning
In the view of CLT language is for communication. It agrees that language is made up of a set of describable rule system.
At the level of language theory, Communicative Language Teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic, theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of this communicative view of language follow.
a) Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
b) The primary function of language is for interaction and communication.
c) The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
d) The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse. [2] (P71)
The views of language learning can be discerned in some CLT practices. Richards and Rodgers described the learning theory in three:
a) Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning;
b) Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning;
c) Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process. [2] (P72)
This theory encourages an emphasis on practice as a way of developing communicative skills.
2.3.2 Design and procedure
(i) Objectives, syllabus and activities
The objectives of CLT are to gain the communicative competence through the language learning. What is the communicative competence? Communicative competence was described by Hymes, his theory of it was a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community. There is a more recent but related analysis of communicative competence in Canale and Swain (1980), in which four dimensions of communicative competence are identified: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. Grammatical competence refers to the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity. Sociolinguistic competence refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the participants, and the communicative purpose for their interaction. Discourse competence refers to the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Strategic competence refers to the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate, terminate, maintain, repair, and redirect communication. [2](P 71)
In other words, Communicative competence may also be described as follows: one can not only make a correct sentence according to the grammar rules but also use the language quickly, accurately and appropriately with different people in different context at different time. So knowing a language involves both knowing the forms of language and knowing whether it is appropriate to use some form in some context. Learners need to know that:
a) Different grammar structures may in different contexts have the same function. For example: “Shall we meet at 9:00?” and “9:00 is ok” are structurally different, but can both be used to express a suggestion.
b) The same grammar structure may in different contexts perform different functions. For example: “It’s raining” can be a statement/ a complaint/ a request to stop an activity, and so on.[6] (P74-75)
The objectives of a course of language instruction cannot be defined until the learners’ needs have been identified. In order to identify their needs, it is necessary to carry out a needs analysis. This needs analysis should first consider why the learners are learning the second language, what topic they will need to find themselves using the language on, and what roles they may need to play within those situations. Next, it is necessary to decide what vocabulary, language structures and functions they will need to know, to what level of accuracy, in order to achieve their purposes. The ability to use these structures and perform these functions quickly, accurately and appropriately for their own purposes will become the objective of the course. [8](P190-191)And these structures and functions will then form the basis of the syllabus.
Then what about the teaching activities in CLT? In W. Littlewood’s Communicative Language Teaching, he describes four CLT teaching activities: Structural Activities, Quasi-communicative Activities, Functional Communication Activities, Social Interaction Activities. He distinguishes between “functional communication activities” and “social interaction activities” as major activity types. Functional communication activities include such tasks as learners comparing sets of pictures and noting similarities and differences; discovering missing features in a map or picture, and so on. Social interaction activities include conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulations, skits, improvisations, and debates. [2] (P76)
Those objectives and this view of the syllabus and activities seem to ignore that:
a) Probably all learners need to learn the basic structure rules of the English in order to be able to achieve their purpose in the English learning.
b) The form of foreign language exam influent the application of the teaching activities. For example the CET4 and CET6.[11]
c) Some teaching activities above require teacher to do something new, but they may not be willing or be able to do it. [12]
d) Carrying out of a thorough need analysis is expensive and very time-consuming, and many teachers may not be willing to do that. [8](P50)
(ii) The role of teachers, learners and materials
For a communicative approach, Breen and Candlin have described the roles of the teacher and learners in following terms:
The teacher has two main roles: The first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. The latter role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and activities. A third role for the teacher is that of researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of the nature of learning, and organizational capacities.
The role of learner as negotiator—between the self, the learning process, and the object of learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way. [2](P77)
In CLT, other roles assumed for teachers are needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager. [2] (P78) Teachers ought to know their learners’ needs and interests and choose suitable and realistic materials to hold English teaching practice activities. Teachers also can answer the learners question and communicate to them in English fluently.
Learners should be active participants in the learning. They should let the teacher know their interests and purposes for learning the English. They will cooperate with the teacher and be willing to learn from other students.
CLT materials aim to help learners to learn to use appropriate language structures in appropriate contexts and also to practice using them. They can be a textbook, and can be a task based on sets of pair or group work activities or games, role plays, and so on. They can also be authentic materials so as to prepare learners for the second language used outside the classroom. The “authentic materials” are types of English teaching input such as newspaper, advertisement, magazines, films, programs, cartoons, and so on.
The CLT view of the role of teachers, learners and materials seems to ignore that:
a) The role of teachers requires them to have very good teaching and language skills, but not all teachers have good ability. Some feel lack of confidence in their English teaching ability.
b) The English courses of our country have the great number of takers, and the level of learners is very different. It may make the teacher difficult to choose a suitable material and teaching activity.
c) There are not enough varied English teaching materials for teacher to organize a communicative activity.
d) The fact that in most classes the learners’ main motivation for studying the English is to pass the exam, they will not to spend much time on non-exam-related activities. [8]( P50-51)
12.3.3 Conclusion
CLT is best considered an approach rather than a method. It ignores something in the approach, design and procedure, but compared with GTM, it seems to match the evidence from Psycholinguistic and SLA research more closely. CLT pays more attention to developing learners’ ability of using the English. It may promote learners’ learning initiative and enthusiasm. So it’s necessary to keep a balance between teaching of form and practice of form.
3. Implication for English teaching in Middle School in China.
From the above discussion, we can see that both Grammar Translation Method and Communicative Language Teaching have their advantages and disadvantages in teaching, but after comparing them, CLT is much better for English teaching in China. Along with social development, it is absolutely necessary to learn English for international communication. The CLT becomes more and more attractive in China. There are a number of reasons for its attractiveness:
Apart from providing a richer teaching and learning environment, it can first include wider considerations of what is appropriate as well as what is accurate; second it can handle a wider range of language, covering texts and conversations as well as sentences; third the Communicative Approach can provide realistic and motivating language practice; and lastly it uses what learners “know” about the functions of language from their experience with their own mother tongue. [8](P199)
But clearly, in Chinese learning contexts, the implementation of CLT is hindered by many practical problems. There are many problems in application of CLT. They include whether a communicative approach can be applied at all levels in a language program, whether it is equally suited to ESL and EFL situations, whether it requires existing grammar-based syllabuses to be abandoned or merely revised, how such an approach can be evaluated, how suitable it is for non-native teachers, and how it can be adopted in situations where students must continue to take grammar-based tests. These kinds of problems will doubtless require attention if the communicative movement in Chinese language teaching continues to gain momentum in the future. [2](P83)
The following aspects of teaching English in China are to be heeded if CLT is going to succeed:
(i) Teacher’s quality
We know that teacher plays the most important role in the teaching activities. In Chinese middle schools, there are many teachers feeling anxious about their English language abilities. They think they have not enough abilities in English teaching to achieve learners’ needs. So developing the teachers’ quality is the most important thing in China.
How to develop it? In Success in English Teaching, Paul Davies said that teacher’s development options can be grouped into three broad categories: Self-development, Co-operative Development, and Formal Development. He believed that initial training should be the beginning, not the end, of their professional development. Self-development can be promoted by reflection on their teaching, developing what consistently seems to go well, and experimenting with alternative approaches to what consistently seems to go badly. Diaries and recordings of their own lessons can help them notice things they would not notice otherwise. Co-operative development can be promoted by sharing ideas and experiences with colleagues. Peer observation is a good way of sharing experience, and is usually more supportive than supervisory observation. Formal development is now virtually essential during almost every stage of a teacher’s career. Apart form actual in-service courses. There are many conventions, seminars, and short courses for teachers of English. Finally, professional reading is one of the best ways to extend their knowledge and keep up with new ideas. [5](P197-201)
In CLT, Teachers ought to know their learners’ needs and interests and choose suitable and realistic materials to hold English learning practice activities. But, how can we know the learners’ real needs? How do we know the materials we choose are suitable for them? They are the problems which are difficult for teachers to resolve in China. In Chinese middle schools, the motivation of students is to pass the exam. They may not want to spend much time on non-exam-related activities. If we want to solve these problems, carrying out the reforms in education is the primary problem in China, but we all know it is impossible at present.
(ii) Teaching activities
CLT procedures often require teachers to acquire less teacher-centered classroom management skills. It is the teacher’s responsibility to organize the classroom as a setting for communication and communicative activities. But the focus on fluency and comprehensibility in Communicative Language Teaching may cause anxiety among teachers accustomed to seeing error suppression and correction as the major instructional responsibility, and who see their primary function as preparing learners to take standardized or other kinds of tests. [2] (P79)
(iii) Language environment
Now let us see the teaching and learning environment.
English in China is a foreign language. Although we have attached importance to English language at present, there are not enough varied materials for teacher to carrying out teaching activities in CLT.
Overseas, in CLT, learners are usually the persons who prepare to travel to English-speaking countries or settle down, or have the chance to contact with foreigners at home. So they have a good opportunity to develop their communicative ability. But in China, English is seen as foreign language. Not only in school but in other places, most of people speak only Chinese, so students in middle school have few opportunities to contact with foreigners from English-speaking countries, so the English communication does not seem very important. [13] (P63) And due to the difference of culture and the way of thinking between China and English-speaking countries, there are many difficulties for students to learn English.
According to the questions mentioned above, there are other problems may affect the carrying out of CLT in China, such as the different level between learners, the large number of students in an English course, and so on. But CLT is still a good effect method in English teaching in China.
4. Conclusion
Every English language learning context is more or less different and it will lead to more or less different answers to questions at the Approach, Design and Procedure levels.
In this paper we can see that not a teaching method is omnipotent, and every method has its advantages and disadvantages. GTM emphasizes the written language and ignores the oral one. CLT pays more attention to developing learner’s ability of using English language, but its focus on fluency and comprehensibility may cause some anxieties. Along with the social development, the growing needs of communication make us understand that CLT is suitable for China, although it has many limitations in its applications in China. CLT must be extended in the modern English Teaching.
Furthermore, we must analyze the factors such as the learners’ personal factor and environment of language to choose a suitable method to ensure the high efficiency of teaching. At last, a better understanding of the nature of language and language learning can help teachers to decide which choices are most likely to lead to effective learning in Chinese classroom.
Reference:
[1] 马丁.韦德尔. 外语教学与学习[M]. 高等出版社, 2001.
[2] Jack C. Richards & Theodore S. Rodgers. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching[M] 外语教学与研究出版社, 2004.
[3] 袁春艳. 综合教学论[M]. 中山大学出版社, 2005
[4] Jack C. Richards. The Context of Language Teaching[M] 外语教学与研究出版社, 2001.
[5] Paul Davies & Eric Pearse. Success in English Teaching[M] Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001
[6] 何广铿. 英语教学研究[M]. 广东高等教育出版社, 2002
[7] 张 利. 浅析两大外语教学法[J] 西华大学学报 (社会版), 2005/12
[8] 舒百梅, 陈佑林. 外语教学法[M]. 高等教育出版社, 2004.
[9] 李慧. 浅谈英语教学中的语法翻译和交际法[J]. 宜春学院学报, 2004/12
[10] 袁春艳. 综合英语教学论[M]. 中山大学出版社, 2005
[11] 刘平. 语法翻译法与交际法之对比研究[J]. 沈阳航空学院学报, 2005/12
[12] 李晓菲. 浅析交际法未被大学英语大班教学广泛采用的原因[J] 文教资料, 2006/02
[13] 胡文仲. 交际教学法初探---基础英语教学集[C]. 外语教学研究出版社, 1985
